World Air Transport Statistics 56Th Edition Peters

A Resolution of Emissions- Estimate Confusion for Informing Flight Choice. Economics Working Paper Series 2. Navcoder Keygen Photoshop. A Resolution of Emissions- Estimate Confusion for Informing Flight Choice Kim Kaivanto and Peng Zhang The Department of Economics Lancaster University Management School Lancaster LA1 4. YX UK Authors All rights reserved.

Short sections of text, not to exceed two paragraphs, may be quoted without explicit permission, provided that full acknowledgement is given. LUMS home page: 2 A Resolution of Emissions- Estimate Confusion for Informing Flight Choice Kim Kaivanto and Peng Zhang Department of Economics, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4. YX, UK this version: April 2.

Despair is in the air. And Out-of-School Programs and Activities for school aged children and youth in the. After School Programs and. Download Stronghold 3 Full Version Isotopes on this page. In Windermere House 1642 E. The rising integration of world markets has brought. Scribd is the world's largest social. Dullien, F.A.L., 1992, Porous Media: Fluid Transport and Pore Structure, Second Edition. Leave No Trace Research. The world at your feet. Leave No Trace Minimum Impact Outdoor Recreation Helena, MT.

1964 (Presented at the 56th Annual Meeting, Air.

Generations of Chevrons. 56th Air Commando Wing in 1967. With the support of Secretary of the Air Force Peters. OFFICE OF MEDICAL HISTORY. Lifted from the mud of the field hospitals for transport by. Official Publications Research Expertise and Publications. Events & Information about The American Civil War. British Textiles Clothe the World;. Image MHQ Home Page Cain at Gettysburg By Ralph Peters.

Abstract Air transport Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions estimates differ greatly, depending on the calculation method employed. Print Watch 4 3 Crack 4 on this page. Best Presets For Lightroom Free on this page. Among the IPCC, ICAO, DEFRA, and Brighter.

Planet calculation methods, the largest estimate may be up to 4. Such heterogeneity and ambiguity over the true estimate confuses the consumer, undermining the credibility of emissions estimates in general. Consequently, GHG emissions estimates do not currently appear on the front page of flight search- engine results.

Even where there are differences between alternative flights emissions, this information is unavailable to consumers at the point of choice. When external considerations rule out alternative travel- modes, the relative ranking of flight options GHG emissions is sufficient to inform consumers decision making. Whereas widespread agreement on a gold standard remains elusive, the present study shows that the principal GHG emissions calculation methods produce consistent rankings within specific route- structure classes. Hence, for many consumers, the question of which calculation method to employ is largely irrelevant.

But unless GHG emissions information is displayed at the point of decision, it cannot enter into consumers decision making. A credible and ambiguity- free alternative would thus be to display GHG ranking information on the front page of flight search- engine results. Keywords: greenhouse gas emissions, carbon footprint computation, scheduled passenger air transport, informed choice, decision making, behavior, policy JEL classification: Q5.

K3. 2, D6. 2, D0. Corresponding author: tel +4. Samsung Galaxy S3 Wifi Chipset Broadcom Bluetooth. Introduction At the point of decision, consumers are generally not provided with the GHG emissions information required to make an environmentally responsible choice between different flight options. Flight search engines typically display GHG information, if at all, on CO 2e - offset pages which are reached after a specific flight has been selected for purchase. Given differences between emissions calculation methods and differing views on Radiative Forcing (RF), any one CO 2e calculator confers advantage to some flights and disadvantage to others in a manner that, to an airline company, may appear arbitrary and unwelcome.

For competitive reasons, airlines have been reluctant to elevate GHG emissions to be front- page product- defining attributes alongside price and convenience. Multiple- methods, multiple- estimates ambiguity is a major impediment to the promotion of CO 2e to the front page of flight search- engine results, where it must appear in order to have an impact upon consumers choices. In this study we show that even though there is considerable heterogeneity in the estimated emissions levels calculated with different methods, there is consistency and cordance among the rankings generated with different methods. We show this both through the calculation methods formulae as well as through statistical analysis of flight data. The empirical analysis also reveals that the strong linear relationship between different methods does not generalize well across route- structure classes, where each class collects together flights that have the same number of segments (legs) and share similar relative segment lengths and passenger load factors. Front- page, point- of- choice display of within- class rankings is implementable, valid, and avoids multiple- methods, multiple- estimates ambiguity.

For consumers without a viable alternative to air travel, GHG emissions rankings are informationally sufficient to allow identification of the least- harmful flight from among those within the route- structure class. But where the travel mode is not restricted by external considerations, there is no substitute for direct comparison of emissions levels with all the attendant ambiguity and credibility problems.

Previous research Civil aviation GHG emissions are estimated as global- level inventories (Olivier, 1. IPCC, 1. 99. 9; Wilkerson et al., 2. Simone et al., 2. Pejovic et al., 2. GAO, 2. 00. 9), airport- level inventories (Hudda et al., 2.

Sherry, 2. 01. 5), airline- level inventories 2. Dorland et al., 2.

Zou et al., 2. 01. Green, 2. 00. 2). At each of these levels there is a well- defined clientele for these emissions- estimate data, and hence there is a substantial volume of research being continually conducted and published on all of these levels. For numerous reasons participation in a regional emissions trading scheme (e. In stark contrast, research on flight- level GHG emissions- calculation methods for informing consumers at the point- of- choice is exceptionally sparse.

Moreover, this research remains within the grey literature (institutional reports), despite point- of- choice GHG- emissions calculation being the necessary input for making environmentally responsible decisions when purchasing flights through flight- search engines, and despite the transport- research field recognizing pointof- choice influence as being an environmentally consequential and legitimate research question in its own right (see e. Mybase 4 85 Download Music here. Avineri and Waygood, 2. These grey- literature studies originate from the Stockholm Environment Institute (Kolmuss and Lane, 2.

Kolmuss and Myers Crimmins, 2. Oxford Environmental Change Institute (Jardine, 2. Breda Centre for Sustainable Tourism & Transport (Eijgelaar et al., 2. Common to these studies is the aim to identify the best calculation method, if such an optimal method exists and is discernible as such. The calculators and the studies at least in part are motivated by GHG- emissions off- setting systems requirements for such estimates, by GHG- emissions accounting and reporting requirements, and by teleological reasoning fixed on the objective of having travel- mode choices respond to flight- specific GHG emissions.

These studies document great differences between the flight- specific estimates provided by the existing GHG- emissions calculation methods. They conclude that, whereas different calculation methods have different advantages and strengths, 1 ultimately all of the calculation methods are imperfect and involve strong compromises. Whereas we discuss the calculation methods in detail below (Section 3), here we note two sources of uncertainty emphasized in the grey- literature studies. First, aside from any inac- 1 for instance some utilize extensive detailed information about the flight, whereas at the other extreme some methods employ simple, robust calculations with low informational requirements 3. These sources of irreducible variation entail that there are limits to the precision with which realized GHG emissions may be estimated ex ante.

Second, there are numerous metrics with which to adjust airliner CO 2 estimates to account for non- co 2 effects 3 : Radiative Forcing (RF), 4 Radiative Forcing Index (RFI), Integrated Radiative Forcing (IRF), Global Warming Potential (GWP), Global Temperature Change Potential (GTP), and Integrated Change in Temperature over Time (ICTT) (Kolmuss and Myers Crimmins, 2. The most commonly used adjustment metric is RFI, which is defined as the ratio of total RF to RF from CO 2 emissions alone. The RFI value used in some calculators may be as high as 4 (Jardine, 2. However most pre- 2. IPCC (1. 99. 9) report s central estimate of 2.

Sausen et al. Nevertheless in a strict technical sense RFI is a fundamentally flawed metric for gauging the impact of individual flights in the future, as RFI (i) is based on the cumulative effect of past emissions, (ii) is not independent of background atmospheric conditions, and (iii) is not able to account for the different latency periods of different forcing agents (Jardine, 2. Kolmuss and Myers Crimmins, 2. Peeters and Williams, 2.

Eijgelaar et al., 2. Despite the improvements that GWP, GTP and ICTT bring over RFI, considerable uncertainty and lack of precision remains. In part, this is due to the relatively low understanding of the impact of contrails and contrail- induced cirrus on radiative forcing and the feedback loops between climate change and the local and global occurrence of these aviation- related impacts (Peeters et al., 2.

Furthermore, each adjustment- metric implementation involves making an assumption regarding the horizon over which it is to be calculated. Hence each metric can generate a range of different estimates, depending on the horizon assumed in calculation. This 2 Due to operational exigencies, airlines will occasionally substitute one aircraft with another that is not a precise match down to airframe model and variant, engine type, vintage and efficiency.

H 2. O), nitrogen oxides (NO x), particulates (sulfates and soot aerosols), and the formation of contrails and cirrus clouds 4 The RF of a forcing agent (a gas) is the difference between incoming solar radiation and outgoing infrared radiation, expressed in Watts per square meter (W/m 2 ). For instance Kolmuss and Myers Crimmins (2.

These authors acknowledge that this is a value- based choice... While acknowledging the fundamentally flawed nature of RFI for gauging the prospective climate- change impact of individual flights, the grey- literature studies concur that a multiplier greaterthan. Eijgelaar et al., 2. The value recommended for this multiplier is in the range (Kolmuss and Myers Crimmins, 2. Media Toolbox 6 Keygen Software.